The Influence of Motivational and Attentional Focus Factors on Throwing Accuracy in Elite Softball Athletes

According to the OPTIMAL theory of motor learning (Wulf & Lewthwaite, 2016), autonomy support (AS), enhanced expectancies (EE), and external focus (EF) of attention are key to effective motor performance and learning. AS allows individuals to exercise control, EE provides performers with an increased sense of confidence, and EF directs attention to the intended movement effects. Previous research indicates that these factors individually and collectively can improve motor performance and learning in novices and experienced performers. Few studies have used elite performers as participants. Purpose: To determine whether skilled throwing performance can be enhanced by a successive implementation of AS, EE, and EF. Methods: Twenty-four healthy, elite female softball players (21.36 ± 1.58 yrs, 14.44 ± 2.75 yrs of softball experience) threw softballs at a bullseye target (10m). Athletes were randomly assigned to two groups: 1) an experimental group provided with all three OPTIMAL factors and 2) a control group. Specifically, the optimized group was given choice of softballs (AS), was given a liberal definition of success (EE), and was instructed to focus on the bullseye (EF). Throwing accuracy was assessed during five 12-throw blocks: a baseline block; the three middle blocks with factor introduction; a transfer test block (12m). Results: No significant group difference in throwing accuracy were seen for baseline, p = 0.551, blocks 2-4, p = 0.798, or transfer test, p = 0.557. No significant group difference was seen in self-efficacy scores for baseline, p = 0.145, blocks 2-4, p = 0.472, or transfer test, p = 0.392. Conclusion: Throwing performance, as well as reported self-efficacy scores, did not change across the blocks with the successive implementation of the OPTIMAL factors. Possible reasons for the lack of group differences include: Both groups preferred to throw with the same ball (AS), participants met the criterion for success more than 75% of the time (EE), and the participants could have already been focusing externally (EF). Furthermore, a single practice session might not be long enough to improve throwing performance, likely as a result of years of repetitions under the same motor patterns. These highly skilled athletes might already have a high level of self-efficacy preexisting from their softball careers, and that self-efficacy might not easily change from a single practice session. Highly skilled athletes take years to improve their skills and might benefit from the addition of appropriate PTIMAL factor manipulations over a longer time period (e.g., an entire sporting season)

The Effectiveness of Proprioceptive Training for Improving Motor Performance and Motor Dysfunction: A Systematic Review

ObjectiveProprioceptive training is any intervention aiming to improve proprioceptive function with the ultimate goal to enhance motor function and performance. It has been promoted as an approach to enhance athletic performance and as a tool for sensorimotor rehabilitation. Numerous studies sought to provide evidence on the effectiveness of the approach. However, many different training regimes claiming to train proprioception report a variety of sensorimotor measures that are not directly comparable. This, in turn, makes it difficult to assess effectiveness across approaches. It is the objective of this study to systematically review recent empirical evidence to gain an understanding of which outcome measures are most sensitive, which populations may benefit most from proprioceptive training, and what are the effects on proprioceptive and motor systems.MethodsFour major databases were searched. The following inclusion criteria were applied: (1) A quantified pre- and post-treatment measure of proprioceptive function. (2) An intervention or training program believed to influence or enhance proprioceptive function. (3) Contained at least one form of treatment or outcome measure that is indicative of somatosensory function and not confounded by information from other sensory modalities. 4) The study reported of at least one quantified measure of motor performance.ResultsOf the 3,297 articles identified by the database search, 70 studies met the inclusion criteria and were included for further review. Across studies, proprioceptive training led to comparable gains in both proprioceptive (+46%) and motor performance (+45%). The majority of studies (50/70) applied active movement interventions. Interventions applying somatosensory stimulation were most successful in clinical populations. Joint position sense error (JPSE) was the most commonly used proprioceptive measure and presents a reliable and feasible measure for clinical use.ConclusionProprioceptive training can lead to significant improvements in proprioceptive and motor function across a range healthy and clinical populations. Regimens requiring active movement of the trainee tended to be most successful in improving sensorimotor performance. Conclusive evidence on how long training gains are retained is still lacking. There is no solid evidence about the underlying long-term neuroplastic changes associated proprioceptive training

Skilled Throwing Performance: A Test of the OPTIMAL Theory

The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning postulates that autonomy support (AS), enhanced expectancies (EE), and an external focus of attention (EF) facilitate improved motor learning and performance. However, its applicability to elite-level throwing athletes has not been investigated by previous literature. The primary purpose of this study was to investigate the successive implementation of AS, EE, and EF factors on overhand throwing performance in elite collegiate softball athletes (14.44 ± 2.75 years of softball experience). The secondary purpose was to determine whether self-efficacy beliefs would be augmented by factor manipulation. Twenty-four participants threw softballs at a bullseye target during five blocks. The Baseline test (Block 1) was used to subsequently assign participants to either the OPTIMAL or control group. Three middle blocks (Block 2 to 4) followed with successive factor implementation for the OPTIMAL group and without instruction for the control group. The final block (Block 5) served as the Transfer test, at which time throwing distance was increased. During Blocks 2 to 4, the OPTIMAL group was given the choice between softballs (AS), a liberal definition of successful throwing performance (EE), and instructed to focus on the bullseye (EF). Self-efficacy beliefs were assessed after applying the factors and before all blocks. There were no significant differences between the groups in throwing accuracy or self-efficacy scores across all blocks. The results suggest that the OPTIMAL theory does not augment skilled throwing performance or alter self-efficacy in elite softball throwing, potentially attributed to a natural adoption of EF and previously high self-efficacy

Establishing a Methodology for Conducting a Rapid Review on Wearable Technology Reliability and Validity in Applied Settings

Wearable technology is becoming increasingly popular with new devices entering the market frequently, but with disproportionality less research being conducted on the reliability and validity in field settings, outside of the laboratory. This paper details the methodology of gathering research based on the principals of a rapid review, using these points of application: inclusion criteria of studies (databases), search terms (data to be extracted), and how research will be conducted (narrowing articles and assessing bias). Point of application #1: Inclusion criteria are described well as potential databases used, allowing a means of not only systematically gathering information, but also the ability to check the status of the literature regarding wearable technology. Point of application #2: Specific search terms are outlined, and the data fields to be extracted are described. Point of application #3: Mechanism of the rapid review search explained, how articles are to be included and excluded, and how bias will be assessed

Efficient Method of Delivery for Powdered Supplement or Placebo for an Outdoor Exercise Investigation

Researchers often encounter issues while attempting to deliver complete doses of a desired supplement/placebo when conducting research in outdoor environments. The problem faced by our research team was how to efficiently deliver 6.4 grams of Beta Alanine (BA) powder to subjects while conducting a hiking study on a windy trail in Southern Utah. To minimize the potential impact of the weather, and to maximize the efficiency of delivery, we determined a premixed bolus of BA contained in individual commercially available 8oz water bottles was the most efficient delivery method. The purpose of this article is to detail the development and implementation of this method. Point of Application 1: Testing solubility, and efficacy of dissolved BA Point of Application 2: Producing a large volume of pre-mixed supplement-bottles and placebo-bottles Point of Application 3: On site administration of supplement and placeb

Assessing the Validity of Several Heart Rate Monitors in Wearable Technology While Mountain Biking

International Journal of Exercise Science 16(7): 1440-1450, 2023. Purpose: This study sought to assess the validity of several heart rate (HR) monitors in wearable technology during mountain biking (MTB), compared to the Polar H7® HR monitor, used as the criterion device. Methods: A total of 20 participants completed two MTB trials while wearing six HR monitors (5 test devices, 1 criterion). HR was recorded on a second-by-second basis for all devices analyzed. After data processing, validity measures were calculated, including 1. error analysis: mean absolute percentage errors (MAPE), mean absolute error (MAE), and mean error (ME), and 2. Correlation analysis: Lin’s concordance correlation coefficient (CCC) and Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r). Thresholds for validity were set at MAPE \u3c 10% and CCC \u3e 0.7. Results: The only device that was found to be valid during mountain biking was the Suunto Spartan Sport watch with accompanying HR monitor, with a MAPE of 0.66% and a CCC of 0.99 for the overall, combined data. Conclusion: If a person would like to track their HR during mountain biking, for pacing, training, or other reasons, the devices best able to produce valid results are chest-based, wireless electrocardiogram (ECG) monitors, secured by elastic straps to minimize the movement of the device, such as the Suunto chest-based HR monitor

Skilled Throwing Performance: A Test of the OPTIMAL Theory

International Journal of Exercise Science 14(5): 358-368, 2021. The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning postulates that autonomy support (AS), enhanced expectancies (EE), and an external focus of attention (EF) facilitate improved motor learning and performance. However, its applicability to elite-level throwing athletes has not been investigated by previous literature. The primary purpose of this study was to investigate the successive implementation of AS, EE, and EF factors on overhand throwing performance in elite collegiate softball athletes (14.44 ± 2.75 years of softball experience). The secondary purpose was to determine whether self-efficacy beliefs would be augmented by factor manipulation. Twenty-four participants threw softballs at a bullseye target during five blocks. The Baseline test (Block 1) was used to subsequently assign participants to either the OPTIMAL or control group. Three middle blocks (Block 2 to 4) followed with successive factor implementation for the OPTIMAL group and without instruction for the control group. The final block (Block 5) served as the Transfer test, at which time throwing distance was increased. During Blocks 2 to 4, the OPTIMAL group was given the choice between softballs (AS), a liberal definition of successful throwing performance (EE), and instructed to focus on the bullseye (EF). Self-efficacy beliefs were assessed after applying the factors and before all blocks. There were no significant differences between the groups in throwing accuracy or self-efficacy scores across all blocks. The results suggest that the OPTIMAL theory does not augment skilled throwing performance or alter self-efficacy in elite softball throwing, potentially attributed to a natural adoption of EF and previously high self-efficacy

Assessing the Validity of Several Heart Rate Monitors in Wearable Technology While Mountain Biking

The development of fitness trackers and other wearable technology designed for health and fitness purposes is growing in popularity and sophistication every day. These devices have the ability to measure or estimate a variety of physiological and physical variables, such as step count, energy expenditure, VO2max, lactate threshold, heart rate, stride length, vertical oscillation, ground contact time, blood oxygen saturation (via pulse oximetry), and many others. PURPOSE: In order to properly use these devices, independent validation needs to take place to determine the device’s accuracy and ability to properly measure or estimate each variable. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the validity of several HR monitors while mountain biking outdoors. METHODS: Twenty apparently healthy participants (10 male, 10 female, 26.3 ± 6.6yrs, 171.8 ± 8.0cm, 73.9 ± 19.0kg) volunteered to mountain bike (MTB) while wearing 6 heart rate monitors (HRMs), (5 test devices, 1 criterion). Each participant completed 2 MTB trials while wearing the HRMs. Data was recorded on a second-by-second basis for all devices and compared against the criterion (Polar H7). Data analysis included determining the mean, standard deviation (SD), mean absolute percentage error (MAPE), Pearson’s correlation coefficient (R), and Lin’s Concordance Correlation Coefficient (CCC). Pre-determined validity thresholds are as follows: MAPE0.7. RESULTS: The validity measures for the criterion Polar H7 Chest HRM, and test devices Suunto Chest HRM, Schosche Rhythm+ HRM, Garmin fenix 5x watch, Polar A360 watch, and Jabra Sport Earbuds, respectively, are as follows: Mean±SD (bpm): 161.79±19.43, 162.11±19.51, 144.50±43.62, 143.94±37.00, 142.14±30.23, and 140.12±41.15,. MAPE: 0.66%, 10.90%, 11.12% , 13.20%, 26.56%. R: 0.99, 0.29, 0.31, 0.41, -0.32. CCC: 0.99, 0.19, 0.22, 0.29, -0.20. CONCLUSION: There was only one device that met the pre-established validity criteria, which was the Suunto Spartan Sport Watch with Chest HRM. This device may be considered valid in producing measures of HR while mountain biking